The Clock Essay Example for Free

The Clock Essay A ‘clock’ is an instrument used to indicate, record, and oversee time. The word ‘clock’ originates from the French word â€Å"cloche† significance ringer, came into utilization when watches were kept in chime towers in the Middle Ages. Students of history don't who or when humankind â€Å"invented† a period keeping gadget or a â€Å"clock†. Most likely a great many years prior when somebody put a stick in the ground and saw a sad remnant of the sun move over the ground, known as the sundial. (Cummings, 1997-2012). After the Samarian culture deserted little information, the Egyptians were close to isolate their day in two sections. A vertical stick, or pillar that is utilized to cast a shadow is known as a sundial. They were utilized as ahead of schedule as 3500 B.C.. Another shadow clock or sundial, conceivably the main compact watch, came into utilization around 1500 B.C. to gauge the entry of hours. As the sun moves from east to west, the shadows anticipate the time. They additionally indicated the years longest and most limited days when the shadow around early afternoon was the briefest or longest of the year. The Greeks utilized a sundial called â€Å"pelekinon†. These sundials are set apart to foresee time precisely consistently. They manufactured a progressively exact sundial dependent on their insight into geometry. An old Egyptian sundial from the eighth century and a Greek sundial are still in presence today. Water timekeepers alongside sundials are known to be the most established time-estimations gadgets. The bowl-molded surge is the easiest type of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and in Egypt around the sixteenth century BC. Different areas of the world, including India and China, likewise have early proof of water tickers, yet the most punctual dates are less sure. A few creators, in any case, guarantee that water checks showed up in China as right on time as 4000 BC. (Cowan, 1958) Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius (Greek: Κï„î ·Ã¯Æ'î ¯Ã® ²Ã® ¹Ã® ¿Ã¯â€š) (fl. 285â€222 BC) was a Greek innovator and mathematician in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. (Starting at 2008, 1768â€2010) He improved the clepsydra in the third century by B.C. by which water that dribbled into the compartment raised a buoy that conveyed a cursor to check the hours. He joined a toothed rack with a buoy switch that when raised would turn a wheel where he introduced mechanical marking feathered creatures and chimes to connote certain hours of the day, for example, early afternoon or 12 PM. In the sixteenth century A.D. clepsydras were utilized by Galileo to time his exploratory falling items. A light watch is likewise of old starting point. Nobody knows precisely when it started. It was utilized to quantify the short lived of time by stamping stretches along the range of the flame. Antiquated Egyptians utilized fat, a creature substances to make candles. The Romans were the first to utilize a wick within a flame. Beeswax was utilized to make candles during the medieval times, anyway it was over the top expensive. It was said that the Romans and the Chinese would utilize light watches as morning timers. They would put a nail in a specific purpose of the flame contingent upon the ideal time. At whatever point the flame wax liquefied down to the nail, the nail would then fall onto a tin dish and make a clamor. An hourglass or sand clock was a regularly utilized time gadget. Its comprise of two glass compartments associated by a tight neck containing a specific measure of sand that gradually streams from the base chamber to the lower in a set measure of time, regularly one hour or somewhere in the vicinity. Hourglasses were exceptionally mainstream on board transports, as they were the most reliable estimation of time while adrift. In contrast to the clepsydra, the movement of the boat while cruising didn't influence the hourglass. The way that the hourglass additionally utilized granular materials rather than fluids gave it increasingly exact estimations, as the clepsydra was inclined to get buildup inside it during temperature changes. (Balmer, (Oct., 1978)). In the ahead of schedule to-mid - fourteenth century A.D., enormous mechanical checks start to show up in towers of a few huge Italian urban areas. These timekeepers were weight driven and exceptionally erroneous. One of the principal tickers to strike the hour was in Milan in around 1335 A.D. These timekeepers just had one hand, the hour hand. In 1510, a man by the name of Peter Henlein, a locksmith and clock producer of Nuremburg, Germany, concocted the spring driven clock. He is regularly viewed as the designer of the watch. (Dohrn-van Rossum Dunlap, 1996). In 1557, the moment hand was imagined. Nonetheless, it wasn’t until the creation of the pendulum in the late 1600’s that the moment hand got valuable. As power was presented, timekeepers started to utilize an electrical drive to work the dials of an ace clock. The electrical flow supplanted the spring and weight as a force source. The piezoelectric impact given by the quartz precious stones was found by the Curie siblings, Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie in 1880, however wasn’t applied into a clock until 1929. This impact showed by specific precious stones producing a voltage when subject to an electric field, instigated an electric potential to close by transmitters, subsequently controlling the clock. These tickers can have a precision of one second at regular intervals. Alongside these creations, Charles Dowd presents time regions in 1870 isolating the United States by meridians 60 minutes, and 15 degrees separated utilizing Greenwich, England as zero meridian. In 1883 the railways embrace the four time regions for the mainland United States. What's more, in 1918 the United States Congress sits back Act’, approving The Interstate Commerce Commission to set up standard time regions inside the United States, and setting up light sparing occasions. At long last, In 1949 The National Institute of Standards and Technology manufactured the principal nuclear clock, utilizing alkali. A second is officially characterized as 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the cesium iota. Nuclear clock NIST-7 has been the primary nuclear time standard for the United States, and is among the best time gauges on the planet.

Advocates of Human Rights and Champions of Countrys and Citizens Research Paper - 2

Supporters of Human Rights and Champions of Countrys and Citizens Safety - Research Paper Example Henceforth, individuals who are indicted in the lower courts, yet have bid effectively to higher courts could nor be expelled from office, nor could be denied of different residents rights, such as getting chose for a chosen post, or practicing casting a ballot rights and so forth. In this way, prosecution or formal charge against any individual isn't proof of blame on the grounds that except if demonstrated something else, the individual should be honest. It is the basic shield in the British framework. â€Å"It is exactly so as to ensure this assumption of blamelessness that litigants are not commonly required to confront proof which, while it might be exceptionally biased, doesn't really demonstrate the specific argument against them† Keeping this elite right of the respondent, he is prohibited from ‘similar certainty evidence’ meaning comparable wrongdoings submitted by the charged in past won't have any bearing on the current case. Human Rights have become th e most significant standards of law today, in completely humanized nations. The world is, finally, recognizing that individual and his privileges are more noteworthy than some other rights, as long as it doesn't infringe another’s singular rights. Consequently, human rights go to the cutting edge while managing uniqueness as its center matter. â€Å"Throughout the world, in worldwide relations and universal law, talk is progressively being led in the language of human rights. This pattern speaks to the noteworthy advances which are being made by the worldwide network of countries on the idea of state sovereignty,† (Feldman, 2002, p.35).

Focus on the Faculty - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Focus on the Faculty - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Focus on the Faculty Last week, I wrote a post about the dedication of the statue of Abraham Baldwin, the founder and first President of the University of Georgia. One of the key people in getting this statue from an idea to reality is Dr. Loch Johnson, Professor in the School of Public and International Affairs and a key figure in the study of national security and the central intelligence community. In the first in a series of articles on UGAs faculty, Focus on Faculty. If you have a minute, go in and look at the specific article on Dr. Johnson, along with his thoughts on what makes an ideal college student. Congratulations Dr. Johnson!

The Night of Sorrows

On the night of June 30 - July 1, 1520, the Spanish conquistadors occupying Tenochtitlan decided to escape from the city, as they had been under heavy attack for several days. The Spanish tried to escape under cover of darkness, but they were spotted by locals, who rallied the Mexica warriors to attack. Although some of the Spaniards escaped, including expedition leader Hernan Cortes, many were slain by the angry natives, and many of the golden treasures of Montezuma were lost. The Spanish referred to the escape as La Noche Triste, or the Night of Sorrows.  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹ The Conquest of the Aztecs In 1519, conquistador Hernan Cortes landed near present-day Veracruz with about 600 men and began slowly making his way to the magnificent capital city of the Mexica (Aztec) Empire, Tenochtitlan. On his way into the Mexican heartland, Cortes learned that the Mexica controlled many vassal states, most of which were unhappy about the Mexicas tyrannical rule. Cortes also first defeated, then befriended the warlike Tlaxcalans, who would provide invaluable assistance in his conquest. On November 8, 1519, Cortes and his men entered Tenochtitlan. Before long, they took Emperor Montezuma captive, resulting in a tense stand-off with the remaining native leaders who wanted the Spaniards out. The Battle of Cempoala and the Toxcatl Massacre In early 1520, Cortes had a fairly firm hold on the city. Emperor Montezuma had proved a pliant captive and a combination of terror and indecision paralyzed other native leaders. In May, however, Cortes was forced to assemble as many soldiers as he could and leave Tenochtitlan. Governor Diego Velazquez of Cuba, wishing to reassert control over Cortes expedition, had sent a massive conquistador army under Panfilo de Narvaez to rein in Cortes. The two conquistador armies met at the Battle of Cempoala on May 28 and Cortes emerged victorious, adding Narvaez men to his own. Meanwhile, back in Tenochtitlan, Cortes had left his lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado in charge of about 160 Spanish reserves. Hearing rumors that the Mexica planned to slaughter them at the Festival of Toxcatl, Alvarado decided on a pre-emptive strike. On May 20, he ordered his men to attack the unarmed Aztec nobles assembled at the festival. Heavily armed Spanish conquistadors and their fierce Tlaxcalan allies waded into the unarmed mass, killing thousands. Needless to say, the people of Tenochtitlan were enraged by the Temple Massacre. When Cortes returned to the city on June 24, he found Alvarado and the surviving Spaniards and Tlaxcalans barricaded in the Palace of Axayà ¡catl. Although Cortes and his men were able to join them, the city was up in arms.   The Death of Montezuma By this point, the people of Tenochtitlan had lost their respect for their Emperor, Montezuma, who had repeatedly refused to take up arms against the hated Spanish. On June 26 or 27, the Spanish dragged a reluctant Montezuma to the rooftop to appeal to his people for peace. This tactic had worked before, but now his people were having none of it. The assembled Mexica egged on by new, warlike leaders including Cuitlà ¡huc (who would succeed Montezuma as Tlatoani, or Emperor), only jeered Montezuma before launching stones and arrows at him and the Spanish on the roof. The Europeans brought Montezuma inside, but he had been mortally wounded. He died shortly thereafter, on June 29 or 30. Preparations for Departure With Montezuma dead, the city in arms and able military leaders like Cuitlà ¡huac clamoring for the annihilation of all of the invaders, Cortes and his captains decided to abandon the city. They knew the Mexica did not like to fight at night, so they decided to leave at midnight on the night of June 30-July 1. Cortes decided that they would leave via the Tacuba causeway to the west, and he organized the retreat. He put his best 200 men in the vanguard so that they could clear the way. He also put important noncombatants there: his interpreter Doà ±a Marina (Malinche) was guarded personally by some of Cortes best soldiers. Following the vanguard would be Cortes with the main force. They were followed by the surviving Tlaxcalan warriors with some important prisoners, including three children of Montezuma. After that, the rearguard and cavalry would be commanded by Juan Velazquez de Leà ³n and Pedro de Alvarado, two of Cortes most reliable battlefield captains. The Night of Sorrows The Spanish made it a fair way onto the Tacuba causeway before they were seen by a local woman who raised the alarm. Before long, thousands of enraged Mexica warriors were attacking the Spanish on the causeway and from their war canoes. The Spanish fought valiantly, but the scene soon deteriorated into chaos. The vanguard and Cortes main body of troops reached the western shores fairly intact, but the back half of the escape column was nearly wiped out by the Mexica. The Tlaxcalan warriors suffered great losses, as did the rearguard. Many local leaders who had allied themselves with the Spanish were killed, including Xiuhtototzin, governor of Teotihuacà ¡n. Two of Montezumas three children were killed, including his son Chimalpopoca. Juan Velazquez de Leà ³n was killed, reportedly shot full of native arrows. There were several gaps in the Tacuba causeway, and these were difficult for the Spanish to cross. The largest gap was called the Toltec Canal. So many Spaniards, Tlaxcalans, and horses died at the Toltec Canal that their dead bodies formed a bridge over the water over which others could cross. At one point, Pedro de Alvarado allegedly made a tremendous leap over one of the gaps in the causeway: this place became known as Alvarados Leap even though it likely never happened. Some Spanish soldiers close to the rearguard decided to retreat back to the city and re-occupy the fortified Palace of Axayà ¡catl. They may have been joined there by as many as 270 conquistadors there, veterans of the Narvaez expedition, who had apparently never been told of the plans to leave that night. These Spanish held out for a couple of days before being overrun: all were killed in battle or sacrificed shortly thereafter. The Treasure of Montezuma The Spanish had been collecting wealth since long before the Night of Sorrows. They had plundered towns and cities on their way to Tenochtitlan, Montezuma had given them extravagant gifts and once they reached the capital city of the Mexica, they had looted it mercilessly. One estimate of their loot was a staggering eight tons of gold, silver, and jewels at the time of the Night of Sorrows. Before they left, Cortes had ordered the treasure melted down into portable gold bars. After he had secured the Kings fifth and his own fifth onto some horses and Tlaxcalan porters, he told the men to take whatever they wanted to carry with them as they fled the city. Many greedy conquistadors loaded themselves down with heavy gold bars, but some of the smarter ones did not. Veteran Bernal Diaz del Castillo carried only a small handful of gemstones which he knew were easy to barter with natives. The gold was put in the care of Alonso de Escobar, one of the men Cortes trusted most. In the confusion of the Night of Sorrows, many of the men abandoned their gold bars when they became a needless weight. Those who had loaded themselves with too much gold were more likely to perish in battle, drown in the lake, or be captured. Escobar disappeared in the confusion, presumably killed or captured, and thousands of pounds of Aztec gold disappeared with him. All in all, most of the loot the Spanish had captured thus far disappeared that night, down into the depths of Lake Texcoco or back into the hands of the Mexica. When the Spanish recaptured Tenochtitlan several months later, they would try in vain to locate this lost treasure. Legacy of the Night of Sorrows All in all, some 600 Spanish conquistadors and about 4,000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed or captured on what the Spanish came to call La Noche Triste, or the Night of Sorrows. All of the captive Spaniards were sacrificed to the Aztecs gods. The Spaniards lost a great many important things, such as their cannons, most of their gunpowder, any food they still had and, of course, the treasure. The Mexica rejoiced in their victory but made a huge tactical error in not pursuing the Spanish immediately. Instead, the invaders were allowed to retreat to Tlaxcala and regroup there before beginning another assault on the city, which would fall in a matter of months, this time for good. Tradition has it that after his defeat, Cortes wept and regrouped beneath an enormous Ahuehuete tree in Tacuba Plaza. This tree stood for centuries and became known as el à ¡rbol de la noche triste or the tree of the Night of Sorrows. Many modern Mexicans favor a native-centric view of the conquest: that is to say, they see the Mexica as brave defenders of their homeland and the Spanish as unwelcome invaders. One manifestation of this is a movement in 2010 to change the name of the plaza, which is called Plaza of the Tree of the Night of Sorrows to Plaza of the Tree of the Night of Victory. The movement did not succeed, perhaps because there is not much left of the tree nowadays. Sources Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. Trans., ed. J.M. Cohen. 1576. London, Penguin Books, 1963. Print.Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. New York: Bantam, 2008.Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico. New York: Touchstone, 1993.

Environmental impact assessment - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4419 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Background 3.1 Introduction Environmental impact assessment, EIA have evolved rapidly in the past years, spurred by increasing number of regulations and legislations. This chapter provides a theoretical background of EIA process in order to establish the need for the focus of this research which deals with one of its preliminary steps, known as baseline. The chapter starts with an overview of the EIA, moves to its legislative requirement and main procedures then focuses on baseline environment; its establishment, need, placing it into the context of overall EIA process. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Environmental impact assessment" essay for you Create order This will highlight its roles and relationship with other EIA stages in order to expose its influence on the EIA process. 3.2 EIA Since the introduction of EIA over 3 decades in the United States, various countries have also included the EIA process in the planning development. EIA till date is generally recognised as key aspect of most large scales planning proposals. Numerous studies on EIA in UK and other parts of the world have also been develop and various authors have attempted to define this process; for several authors (Carroll and Turpin, 2009; DETR, 2000; FoE 2005; Glasson et al., 2005; Jay and Handley, 2001; Weston, 2000; Weston, 2004; Wood, 2007). EIA is a procedure established to inform authorising bodies, planners and affected public about a proposed project and their likely effects. Likewise, Lawrence (2003) gave a broad definition of EIA process which he described as a systematic process of: Determining and managing (identifying, describing, measuring, predicting, interpreting integrating communicating, involving and controlling) the Potential or real impacts (direct and indirect, individual and cumulative, likelihood of occurrence) of Proposed (or existing) human actions (projects, plans, programmes, legislation activities and their alternatives on the Environment (physical, chemical, biological, ecological, human health, cultural, social, economic, built and interrelations). The definition of the environment outlined here is broad, comprising of various aspects of possible environmental components. This serves to highlight a wide environmental consideration by the EIA process. In simple word, EIA is the identification, assessment and management of the environmental effects/impacts that may arise from implementation of a proposed project which may significantly affect the natural man made environment. The benefits of EIA have been acknowledged and accepted by various researchers and also worldwide as an important environment decision making tool (IEMA, 2002; Wood, 2003) instituted for identifying and managing the significant impacts of development proposals (DLCG, 2006; IEMA, 2004; Jay et al., 2007; Petts, 1999; Weston, 2004). Accurately, EIA not only aims to controls impacts but may also contribute to planning decision making. 3.2.1 EIA required and steps 3.2.2 Legislation EIA process was derived from European law (Foe, 2005) and was formerly referred to as environmental assessment in UK. In both the UK and EU requirement for an EIA is set out in directive 85/337/EEC and the revised Directive 97/11/EC, and Directive 2003/35/EC 2007 implemented through a series of regulations. However, EIA regulation for planning projects in England and Wales are Town and country planning (assessment of environmental effects) Regulations 1988 and the subsequent 1999, 2000, 2006, 2008 amendments. The directives main aim requires the competent authority for a particular project to acknowledge and centres his decision on likely significant effects of a project proposal on the environment. The EIA regulations applies to two lists of developments. It is required that for a specified list of project types (Annex 1) or for all projects under the schedule 1, EIA must be carried out. Other projects listed in Annex ii and iii may also require EIA depending on project location, ch aracteristics, size and also characteristics of potential impacts respectively. Hence, for projects under schedule two EIA will be carried out if and only if it exceeds the given thresholds i.e. if the development is likely to have a significant impact on the environment by virtue of its nature, size or location. The legislation requires the inclusion of the following; The likely significant effect, direct, indirect on the environment of the development explained by reference to its possible impact on the following environmental receptors): human beings, soil fauna water air climate, the landscape the interaction between any of the foregoing material assets and the cultural heritage. Competently, in a simple word EIA covers all types of impacts from development (Foe, 2005). However, EIA is not a straight forward project there are various stages in carrying out the EIA process and these contributes towards achieving the main aims of the EIA and purpose of its implementation. 3.2.3 EIA steps In accordance with UK legislation, it is the developer/proponent who has the main responsibility for managing the assessment process and producing EIA documents. The generic steps in EIA are divided into three: (a) preliminary assessment; this involves scoping, screening and baseline studies and (b) detailed assessment; impact analysis, mitigation and EIS presentation (c) follow up; monitoring and auditing (Morrison à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Saunders and Arts, 2004). The process which involves a number of steps The process begins with identification of projects that require EIA often known as screening. A local planning authority decides if EIA is required in consultation with the applicant. Scoping follows, to investigate the necessary and significant information to be addressed while carrying out EIA. Consideration of alternatives to ensure that other possible approaches have been recognised including alternative project location site, scales, layouts, operating conditions and the no action option. Baseline studies to identify the environmental components in the proposed development site/ area. Impact prediction and assessment to enable identification and evaluation of impacts that may arise as a result of the project proposal. Mitigation measures are then established to avoid, minimise, remedy or compensate these effects. Monitoring measures are then proposed to oversee that these management plans are achieved. These information gathered, are then presented in an environmental statement. A review stage which involves logical evaluation of the quality of the ES. Public participation and Consultation is also incorporated into this process. As stated earlier that the regulation requires the assessment of significant effects of a proposed project in relation to the environmental receptors of a project the question is how the effects will be assessed? Or rather what is the requirement for assessment of the identified effects? The question tends to be answered in the following section. 3. 4 Baseline in EIA The term baseline was introduced in the environmental literature at same period as the conception of EIA process. Figure 2. illustrates how baseline fits into the EIA process. A number of literature publications (Canter, 1996; Glasson et al., 2005) have clearly defined and explained baseline concept and its role in EIA process; prominent points from literature which places the principles in context follows; 3.4.1 Definition A baseline study is an activity undertaken at an early stage in EIA and is integral to the EIA process. They are often referred to as the environmental setting, existing conditions, affected environment, and background environment, environmental conditions, environmental receptors, baseline data information (Canter, 1996; Eccleston, 2001; Shepherd, 2006). However, there is no universally accepted definition for baseline. Although it is often defined as in EIA context as the physical, chemical ,biological ,social ,economic, and cultural setting of an environment in which the proposed project is to be located, and where impacts might be expected to occur (Shepherd, 2006). They have also been defined as present and future environmental state of the proposed project site (Glasson et al., 2005). Accurately, they are compiled information concerning what the measure of the attributes would be (or is) prior to the activity at the project site. 3.4.2 Legal status and requirement of baseline in EIA Where does a baseline study fit into the broader picture in EIA? Treweek (1999) reports that nearly all legislation requires description of baseline condition. Theoretically, in terms of environment legislation, the legislation do not specifically refer to baseline studies; however, the need for it is a minimum requirement (schedule 4 part 11). The EIA directive requires the following: The data required to identify and assess the main effects which the development is likely to have on the environment (schedule 4, part 11,2) the likely evolution thereof without implementation of the plan and programme.(Annex 1, article 5 (1) (b) An indication of any difficulties (technical deficiencies or lack of know-how) encountered during the compilation of the required information. (Annex 1, article 5(h). The data required to assess the effects of the development refers to baseline information. The likely evolution refers to the future environmental condition of a proposed project site. It is likely that there may be gaps or constraints encountered while gathering environmental information, clearly, an indication of limitation of the information generated is required. 3.4.3 Baseline topics Environmental disturbances may manifest a change of one or more receptors (i.e. water, air, soil, land etc) often refereed to as environmental resources (Eccleston, 2001). They also represent various environmental components that may be considered during the assessment stage. For instance if a flood channel is to be constructed and there are concerns about the effects on water resources, habitat and species due to widening of stream. The aim of baseline will be to determine the existing number of species, habitats, and water quality etc. However, there are no specific standard requirements on the number and type of environmental factors/ components that will be considered in description of environmental setting (Canter, 1996).The different environmental component that may be considered are established in table 1 below lists some of the environmental components that may be considered in outlining the baseline. 3.4.4 Method and techniques Different approaches can be used to identify an initial list of environmental factors relevance to a proposed project. Four common practical methods have been identified. Desk studies, filed surveys, modelling and consultation is all applicable methods to characterise the baseline environment (RPS, 2007). i) Site visits Site visits involves member of the study team to visit the proposed project location. This could provide familiarization with the area and enable more- effective understanding of the site and its environments and identification of the key issues (DCLG, 2006b). ii) Desk study Baseline studies are often initiated through desk studies to identify the key environmental components to be considered. This involves use of secondary data sources including published and unpublished sources. Appropriate data for describing the physical, chemical, biological cultural and socio economic environments can be obtained from reports and unpublished data from numerous regulatory agencies at local, state, regional and federal government levels. This may include information gathered directly during consultation, (RPS, 2007) such as information from statutory consultees (which includes environment agency, countryside agency, English heritage), non governmental organisations, local groups (e.g. local wildlife groups); local authorities (e.g. oxford city council) and environment websites and muliti agency geographical information for countryside agency (DLCG, 2006b). Thus, encouraging rapid compilation of variety of information which serves as a basis for baseline assessment. T he need for field survey may be identified at this stage. iii) Surveys Surveys involve a great range of technique, usually quantitative such as ecology and ambient noise survey or qualitative such as like water quality. Guidance and methodology for filed survey are often found from professional and statutory agencies. (DLCG, 2006b). Field survey is often used to identify baseline conditions and to compliment the desk study. Also the baseline survey for a specific EIA project will be dependent on the proposed project, site location and sensitivities. Concern should be given to any seasonal constraints for instance, some surveys are seasonally dependent or may be require a long duration to assess for instance summer and winter are considered for landscape survey and visual impact assessment, which may require photomontages and ecological survey of species which requires about one year to be established (Carroll and Turpin, 2009; DCLG, 2006b). Adequate time should be planned into the scheme for such surveys. However, its is important to note that all field surveys should be planned and implemented in a manner that can be repetitive before construction stage. iv) Professional knowledge, Expert opinion and key informants A good method of identifying environmental factors is to employ professional knowledge related to the expected impacts of specific types of projects (Canter, 1996). This may require consultation with a number of informants who have knowledge on existing condition of the site area, and may include representatives of special group, etc. Experts can also predict how a particular environmental component may react. An expert may determine how a specific habitat will react or develop. Survey can then be identified to compliment or support the experts opinion. 3.6 Establishment of baseline After the identification of key environmental factors, baseline assessment can be conducted in various ways. Canter (1996) established a framework on assessing baseline information presented in figure 3. The primary step includes identification of variety of environmental factors at the specific project site, whereby scoping/ selection technique may be applied to focus on the key issues. This selection stage is referred to as the central issue of the baseline approach. This is because, EIA is centred on significant issues hence the selection stage is required to scope out irrelevant environmental components. Baseline environment is very broad. Significance is the main theme for EIA. After which the identification of relevant existing data for the key selected factors will be applied. The preparation of description of the existing environment then follows. Glasson et al., (2005) also studied and attempted to develop a framework analysis of baseline. In this case each environmental, which after identification of a factor a statement of objective or purpose for selected factor is identified, then the required information is listed and the technique for assessment of the data follows and finally objective The approached developed could be appraised as it included the objective of the selected factors environmental factor. It is required that while identifying baseline a clear purpose should be identified (Knight 2009). In order, to justify the reason for selection. 3.4.6 Need for baseline Baseline is required for a variety of purposes and its often categorised into two major steps Lawrence (2003). Environmental overview at screening stage and scoping A more in depth environmental appraisal during impact assessment. Baseline could also be identified in the EIA process, whenever additional information is introduced into the assessment (Lawrence, 2003). It is however, important to note that baseline studies have a key role to play from the project initiation to final design and establishment of operational standards (Wathern, 1992). This perhaps implies that, baseline is not limited to one point in the assessment and may be incorporated into other EIA step. It is considered worthwhile to further explore baseline roles in the stages of EIA process 3.4.7 Relationship between baseline and other EIA steps Because it is identified as an initial step in the EIA process, its consideration may have an effect on the other EIA steps. Screening: During screening baseline is required in identification of valuable environmental resources which may indicate whether a proposal requires EIA or not. Scoping: Baseline is often incorporated into the scoping stage. Its been recognised that baseline studies using existing data and local knowledge are required for scoping ( FAO, 2005) and is also perceived as a scoping technique. As noted earlier, in establishment of baseline, scoping comes into place during the selection of significant environmental factor. Once significant issue have been identified the need for further in depth studies can be clearly identified and perhaps allows initiation of additional data collection. Moreover, scope and depth of the baseline studies is usually incorporated at pre project state and scoping stages during consultation with the local planning authority and consultees to deal with the seasonal effects on surveys (DCLG 2006b). Impact identification and assessment: This is the most significant stage of the EIA process which allows complete incorporation of all the selected baseline environment. Only by carefully and systematically describe the initial baseline environmental conditions is it possible to present an accurate and convincing picture of the likely effects that the development will have on its environment (Wood, 2003) and if deficient, conclusions made about impact significant may be questioned (Eccleston, 2001). Hence only by identifying the existing environmental factors/ components that entire impacts of a development would be assessed. Baseline therefore provide evidence of impacts assessed. Choice of alternatives: Baseline environment may also be considered during assessment of project alternatives. Alternatives seeks to identify a specific project site, location, materials and design by comparing environmental baseline of various options in order to select a more environmental friendly option. The most important aspect of various options considered is the do nothing scenario. In this case it is expected that the proposal would consider existing condition in absence of the project implemented and perhaps its possible future state. Hence, these future conditions are standards against which are compared projected future conditions of project alternatives. Clearly, This forms a basis upon which the future environmental effects of different alternatives are assessed (Environment Agency 2008; Shepherd, 2006) in order to predict what the state of the environment will look like if the project is to go ahead. Mitigation measures After impacts are predicted mitigation measures are identified in order to manage the impacts during project implementation. This may involve minimisation of, or prevention of impacts; compensation may occur when impacts cannot be avoided for instance by providing a new habitat or planting new trees in order to replace affected habitats, remediation, enhancement centred around developments and this may involve a development on contaminated land in order to improve the quality. Baseline therefore provides environmental components to assist in the establishment or mitigation measures (Lawrence, 2003) and is may also be used to assess the success of mitigation measures. Monitoring Monitoring is undertaken to establish information on description and functions of environmental variables. Baseline may also be required during monitoring (Lawrence 2003: 55, Morris and Therivel, 2009) as monitoring ensures assessment of changes of environmental parameters against baseline. Indeed, baseline, establish quality foundation for appraisal of post-EIA studies on the project site. Impact prediction and selection of alternatives are the main stages whereby baseline data is highly recommended. If key role of EIA process is to facilitate decision making, then impact prediction is necessary at that stage and the baseline information gathered serves as a basis for impact analysis. Nevertheless, it would be accepted that; baseline studies form backbone of component assessments (Morris and Therivel, 2009). Indeed, it is not limited to impact assessment but might take place during scoping, choice of alternatives, mitigation identification and monitoring accuracy and plausibility of much of the remainder of the EIA report depends upon it (Wood, 2003). 3.4.8 Problem associated with baseline studies There are many problems surrounding baseline assessment these problems are however mostly encountered in practice. As an initial step in EIA, baseline requires so much time and information and if not carefully carried out may affect the other steps in the EIA process. Problem with definition In development context baseline is one of the hardest words to define because of its broad meaning. In agreement, is Wathern (1992), who identified baseline studies as the least understood element of EIA, he emphasized that its definition as social, physical and biological environments which could be affected by the development project as the reason for most difficulties encountered with baseline studies. This is because in an attempt to describe the environment, various information are accumulated on general topics of water, air etc (Wathern 1992). This however focuses on available information and data rather than what is needed. The most evident inadequacy with this is that they fail to address the need of the project maker involved in project planning. The focus of baseline is thereby perceived as a major problem confronting EIA practitioners. Time and resources constraint: Both time and financial constraints maybe difficult to cope with. The developer often has to pay for these data. This step, frequently account for a lager part of the overall cost of EIA process (Wathern, 1992). Baseline studies require a whole lot of time hence delay on the project may arise and also as noted earlier, surveys are seasonally dependent. For instance, ecology data which usually requires about 12 months to establish. A case study review found that absence of existing air quality, noise and water quality, increased resources and delayed EIA project. (Andre et al., 2004). Data availability and quality: Recent research by Carroll and Turpin (2009) found that there is needs now to provide much more information than was than that required by the UK government in the 1980s. Hence, because of this great quantity of data required, data is not often available. It is also widely recognised that likely future evolution is difficult to predict as trends are not often available. Moreover, inadequate understanding of relative roles of baseline description (UNEP, 2004) may be perceived to be of great problem limiting its consideration in practice. 3.5 Critical review Even a cursory glance at recent writing on EIA shows that the issue of baseline in EIA is not a major focus for EIA practitioners and researchers. It was indicated in the literature that baseline is incorporated into EIA and plays an important role in the process. As well as being, intensive, and time consuming, an early initiation of the step would avoid delay in decision making. Apparently, theres no doubt that the assessment of baseline is important, impact assessment is considered the major objective of EIA process, baseline is important because it helps provide all the necessary data required for impact assessment. This has been the major role identified with baseline. Its relationship with other EIA steps such as post EIA studies, mitigation, and consideration of alternatives has been given limited attention. A great number of reports and articles on EIA process (DCLG 2006b; FAO, 2006; IEMA, 2002; Morrison Saunders and Arts, 2004) omit the baseline stage while outlining the key steps of EIA process although its often incorporated into scoping stage. In addition, the approach to baseline established by Canter (1996) could be criticised for not including a clear purpose of the selected environmental components as well as the baseline steps identified by Lawrence (2003) which failed to identify the likely evolution of baseline study while outlining its steps. Evidence till date, still suggests that lack of consideration of baseline especially the likely future evolution should be given more attention (Wood et al., 2007). This is very important as it forms a basis upon which the future environmental effects of different options are assessed. As a matter of fact, overall in depth study on baseline studies has been neglected. Except for the work of Wathern, 1992; Canter 1996; Glasson et al., 2005 theres has been little substantial investigation into this area. Although, several researchers (Carroll and Turpin, 2009; Wood 2003; Lawrence, 2003; Shepherd, 2006) ha ve reported significant gains of baseline in theory, only very few has reported its gains in practice. However, studies would have been more convincing if they had carried out more research on its general influence on fundamental purposes of EIA rather than restricting it to assessment of effects. This perhaps would expose its importance in outcome of EIA process. 3.6 Summary This chapter has addressed EIA and its preliminary step, baseline assessment. Placing baseline in the EIA legislative context. Although the directive did not specifically refer to baseline in EIA, it did refer to presentation of data used to assess potential impacts, limitations of information gathered and likely future condition of the existing environment. The discussion has outlined baseline relationship with other EIA steps in detail, with particular focus on its benefits to the process. It revealed that importance of baseline depends on the stage of the EIA they are used. The main benefits attached to baseline studies include its support for impacts assessment. Different approach are used in establish baseline information. Although it is acknowledge that baseline environment is broad, input from scoping consultation can help in identifying the key environmental components and therefore scope out any irrelevant issues. However issues such as definition, cost, and resource and tim e constraint surrounding EIA processes have been identified with baseline. Good practice and future directions have been addresses far less. It seems that theory is fairly clear while practice is still rather misty. Literature could also be criticised for limited investigation into this area. The following chapter tries to establish in detail the first stage of the methodology which requires establishment of good quality baseline and also effectiveness of the EIA in order to examine the former influence on the later. Screening: a process deciding if EIA is required or not by limiting the application of EIA to specific projects that could develop significant environmental impacts Definitions of key terms Scoping: process identifying the key /important environmental issues at an early stage Description of project and alternatives: includes a clear purpose of proposed project and also an understanding of its various characteristics. Identification of impacts ensuring that all potentially significant environmental impacts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.are identified and considered. Impact prediction: identifies the magnitude and other dimensions of identified change in the environment with a project. Evaluation and assessment of significance of impacts: assesses the significance of the predicted impacts to allow a focus on the precise adverse impacts. Mitigation measures: explores measures to avoid reduce remedy or compensate for any significant adverse impacts Consultation: involve s both statutory and non statutory interested bodies members of the public consulted during the EIA process. aim to ensure the quality, comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the EIA and that the public s views are adequately taken into consideration Evaluation: Evaluation is a term much used in planning and policy for the generic process of gathering structuring analysing and appraising information. Evaluation explicitly involves value judgements. It often relates to subjective policy oriented judgements rather than purely scientific and technical analysis.( Arts et al 2001). Monitoring: collection of data on a range of specific environmental variables. Mitigation: includes the three keys avoiding, reduce and remedying the potential significant adverse impacts avoiding Environmental statement: report where the EIA is documented. Seen as a vital step in the EIA process Review of ES: involves a systematic appraisal of the quality of the ES. Decision making: requires the consideration of the development by the planning /relevant authority Guidance: usually produced and issued by the responsible EIA administrative or expert body and should provide clear and authoritative interpretation of the actions to be taken and by whom.(UNEP 2004) Post-decision audits involves the recording of outcomes associated with development impacts. Developer: also known as proponent, petitioner, and initiator. The applicant for authorization for a private project or the public authority which initiates a project ( European commission 2001) Effect/impact: Any change in the physical, natural, or cultural environment brought about by a development project. Effect and impact are used interchangeably. Audit of predictions and mitigation: may involve comparing actual outcomes withy that of the predicted Competent authority: those which the member state selected and assumed the responsibility for performing the duties arising from the directive.(European Commission, 2001) Project the execution of construction works or other installations or schemes and other interventions in the natural surroundings and landscape including those involving the extraction of mineral resources. (European Commission, 2001).

A Closer Look into the Boxer Rebellion Free Essays

string(140) " and the priests situated in various parts of China were regarded to have the same political power as the Chinese prefects and magistrates\." The Boxer Rebellion was one of the many periods of history that has almost been forgotten by Western historians despite its importance and impact in Chinese history. Eventually, information regarding this rebellion had resurfaced which some historians have considered to be mythical in the sense that some historians have concentrated the information regarding the Boxer Rebellion only on certain portions that they have deemed to be beneficial to the current society of the country. In line with this, this paper aims to provide an analytical report justifying that the Boxer Rebellion, although may have begun as a political and economical uprising, most of the efforts done during the Boxer Rebellion was to prevent Western culture and tradition from tainting Chinese culture, particularly in terms of religion. We will write a custom essay sample on A Closer Look into the Boxer Rebellion or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper will also provide evidence to justify as to why many historians have considered the current image of the Boxer Rebellion to be a myth. In order to present the analysis report with regards to the Boxer Rebellion movement comprehensively, a brief overview of Chinese society during the period when the Boxer Rebellion arose should be first discussed. The Boxer Rebellion first gained attention in the year 1898 (Ch’en 290). During this time, China was currently under the governance of the Qing dynasty. Unlike the Ming dynasty before it, the Qing dynasty was not comprised of Manchus, foreigners from Manchuria who obtained governance on China as a result of conquest. The Manchus, as how the Chinese called them, were viewed as both privileged and idlers, with majority of the Manchus consuming one-third of the total revenue of the country (Purcell i-ii). It was also during this period a shift on the basis of the country’s economy from land acquisition to credit acquisition. In fact, Mark Elvin, author of â€Å"The Pattern of the Chinese Past† that was published in 1973 stated that usury, which was the term given to the act of controlling economic resources, became a â€Å"a more important source of social and economic power in the countryside than ownership of land† (as cited in Wakeman, Jr. 202). Apart from this, international trade and commerce that were previously banned during the Ming dynasty were re-established (Van de Van 230). Despite the shift in economic power, many members of the lower class in Chinese society still did not enjoy the independence enjoyed by the richer farmers and land owners because the practices of the moneylenders did not provide those the peasants with what they had considered to be essential to their way of life. Instead, they viewed this change in the economic power in Chinese society as a fragile and false link between the Manchu rulers and the Chinese subordinates. As such, most of the uprisings that had occurred during this period of time have been linked to peasantry revolts whose goals centered on the quest to equalize the land and resources (Wakeman Jr. 202-03). The above stated situation the China during the period of the Boxer Rebellion may have been the reason why many have associated this movement to be another peasantry revolt against the Manchu government. This was also supported by the fact that majority of the Boxers, as how they were called, were young male peasants, and that their revolt actions included stampeding into the cities and burning down blocks of the finest stores and offices of moneylenders (Liu 102). Furthermore, there have been only limited accounts on the Boxer Rebellion movement with these limited resources depicting the members of the Boxer Revolt as being hostile (Ch’en 290). While the characteristics of the Boxers were similar to that of other peasant revolts against the Manchu government, the aims and objectives of the Boxers Revolution was nothing similar. In fact, for a brief period in time, the Manchu monarchy – headed by Empress Dowager Cixi – supported the Boxers Movement (Liu 102). This is primarily due to the aims and objectives of the Boxers Movement. Because of the re-opening of international trade routes, many of the Chinese began to develop as sense of Xenophobia, which is, the fear of foreign rule. As international foreign trade blossomed, foreigners began to come in not just with raw items and other commodities, but also their own beliefs, particularly Christianity (Ch’en 290-91). Unlike the Westerners, the Chinese have patronized and supported their current government despite themselves being foreigners as well. This was because when the Chinese were brought under the rule of the Manchus, it was the Manchus and not the Chinese who assimilated themselves to the culture and society of Chinese to the point that if one would compare a Manchu and a Chinese side-by-side, only subtle differences can be viewed between them (Purcell 2). This is not the case with the Westerners who have been known to subtly invade other countries through the process of â€Å"cultural imperialism. † Cultural imperialism has been defined as the process of a foreign country to impose in a coercive manner, usually through political and economical methods, their beliefs, customs and traditions to another country, usually one that they have deemed to be more inferior than they were (Dunch 302). In the case of China, through its trade activities with European countries, has been viewed to be a country that was static, as compared to the European countries where advancements in technology was at its peak (Purcell 3). As a result, missionaries began to flock into China and began to establish schools in the Shandong province (Liu 103-04). Eventually, many of the Chinese have slowly begun to view these foreign missionaries as a threat to their cultural identity, especially after the missionaries were slowly being granted diplomatic and military support from the Qing dynasty monarchy. The Manchu monarchy increased the ranks and privileges of the foreign missionaries. One example of this was the bishop situated in the Shandong province was given the rank by the Empress Dowager Cixi similar to that of the Chinese governor of the province. On top of that, the monsignors and the priests situated in various parts of China were regarded to have the same political power as the Chinese prefects and magistrates. You read "A Closer Look into the Boxer Rebellion" in category "Papers" Because of the political power that was granted to the foreign missionaries, they were able to handle their missionary work in a more convenient manner. Not only could they not be touched by members of the local government within the area that they are ministering, but also they had the authority to protect those who have been converted into Christendom against any actions made by local authorities that they consider as harassment on the part of their converts (Liu 104). The members of the Boxers have viewed the actions of the Catholic missionaries as a way not just to make their mark in their culture, but also as a slow, but steady method of overthrowing their monarchy and their government and invading them. The Boxers viewed Christianity as a form of heresy and against the teachings of both Confucianism and Taoism, which are the prominent religions in China during this period (â€Å"History in Three Keys† 8). It was for this reason that the Boxers launched a propaganda movement against foreign missionaries. As far as the Boxers were concerned, their propaganda movement was justified by the literary pieces that were centered in both Confucianism and Taoism. Perhaps the most influential of these lyric pieces was a lyric poem which they have believed was composed by the god Chi-Kung, who shared it to the Boxers through the medium. The poem referred to the Chinese Christian converts as people â€Å"who have lost all their senses† and whose â€Å"aim was to engulf the whole country† and to â€Å"deceive our Emperor† (Ch’en 292). The propaganda literature distributed by the Boxers echoed the message of the poem of Chi-Kung. These literature included notices that they boldly advocated, such as the message that â€Å"The heresy [heresy referring to the missionaries and their converts] has no respect for either gods or Buddhas† (Ch’en 293). Based on these propaganda, it is clear that the Boxer Rebellion Movement’s aim was to wipe out foreign missionaries by any means possible in order to protect their beloved emperor and his family as well as the common people of China (Ch’en 293). Sadly, the government that they were trying to protect did not share in their vision. In the end, the Qing dynasty suppressed the Boxer movement and all forms of literature associated with the movement (â€Å"History in Three Keys† 15). There were a number of reasons as to why history presented the Boxer Rebellion more as a political revolution as opposed to a movement to protect the culture, government and people of China during the 19th century. One reason for this was that, as mentioned, all documents pertaining to the Boxer Movement, especially those that supported the Boxer Movement were destroyed. What were left were official documents and other forms of literature that were written by those who opposed the Boxer Revolution Movement. These documents depicted the Boxers as a group of illiterate individuals who were afraid of advancement and progress (â€Å"History in Three Keys† 15). But the primary reason for the difference of the viewpoint regarding the Boxer Rebellion Movement was on the historians themselves. While it is true that majority of historians document events that had occurred in a particular area during a particular period based on facts in order to provide the readers an objective viewpoint that is as accurate as the facts and evidences may allow them to, there remains some historians who have been considered by their colleagues as â€Å"mythologizers† (â€Å"The Contested Past† 82). These kinds of historians have been described as those who have a clear understanding of the past events and have access to the same evidences and facts that are available to historians, sociologists, anthropologists and the like. The difference lies in the manner on how they utilize these facts and evidences in their writings. Instead of providing the reader an objective, play-by-play account of the events that had occurred during a particular point in time, mythologizers have been known to utilize the facts and evidences to create an account of a historical event to serve another purpose. These purposes include political reform and psychological formation of the reader (â€Å"The Contested Past 82-83). Examples of this can be found with regards to the manner on how various authors whose works have long been considered as historical accounts on the Boxer Revolution. In one account which was entitled â€Å"The Boxers’ Conquest of the Westerners,† the Boxers were described as a group of individuals who were superstitious and irrational. In fact, not much attention was actually given to this over the more noble reason for the revolt, which was the protection and preservation of Chinese culture from the changes being imposed by foreign missionaries. As a result, this historical account presented the Chinese as a people who, in a period when everyone else were trying to advance themselves, remained superstitious by believing that gods and deities still correspond through mediums in order for the people to do their bidding as well as a country whose people remained ignorant and even barbaric (â€Å"The Contested Past† 84). Chen’s Duxiu’s essay is another example of mythologization of the Boxer Revolution. In his essay, he firmly addressed and justified that the Boxer Revolution was brought about by the influence of Confucianism, Taoism and other religions present in China during that period of time has led to the Boxer Uprising. Duxiu further stated that since these religions are still prevalent in China to this very day, it would not be long before another Boxer Revolution will take place (â€Å"The Contested Past† 85). While this does have some truth in it, it is also not entirely accurate because Duxiu failed to take into consideration that one of the main reasons why the Boxer Revolution erupted was because of the imminent overthrow of the current monarchy ruling China brought about by the government itself by providing political power to a certain extent to the foreign missionaries. This allowed them to be in a position to choose on whether they would follow the rulings of the local government where they were ministering. In fact, the term â€Å"Boxer† Revolution by itself may be considered to be a form of mythologization. In his article, Lu Xun had presented it as a metaphor to present the ignorance of the Chinese during the 19th century in his statement â€Å"[†¦] if the Chinese don’t learn the military art of using rattan shields, how can they protect themselves against firearms[†¦]† (as cited in â€Å"The Contested Past† 86). To summarize, the Boxer Revolution that occurred during the Qing dynasty was brought about by a number of historical events. The first was the experience of the Chinese towards foreign invasion. Although they were currently being ruled by foreigners from Manchuria, they did not fear that this would bring about a loss of their cultural identity and heritage. This was because the foreign rulers assimilated themselves into the Chinese culture and traditions to a point wherein Manchus living in China were not that different from the Chinese. The second historical event was the re-opening of international trade routes by the Manchus during the Qing dynasty that have been closed during the Ming dynasty. While this benefited the country economically with traders bringing in rare commodities in exchange for Chinese goods, it had also paved the way for European missionaries to enter the country, bringing in Christianity into China. This event has caused many of the converts to turn their backs from local customs and traditions, hence, their own cultural identity. The third was the decision made by the Manchu government through Empress Dowager Cixi to grant the foreign missionaries some form of political power. This proved to be the biggest threat viewed by the Boxer Revolt. The decision made by the Empress Dowager has not only provided the foreign missionaries some form of leniency which would allow them to practice their faith and to convert Chinese into Christianity more freely, but it also allowed the foreign missionaries not to adhere with the local government in the various provinces where they were ministering. This is because the political power granted by the Empress to the foreign missionaries has caused them to have the same political powers as those in the local government, if not higher. Based on the evidence presented, the preconceived notion that the Boxers were predominantly made out of peasants is inaccurate. On the contrary, the evidence have suggested that the Boxer Revolution was actually a movement that was composed largely of educated individuals and since education was a privilege that was enjoyed by the elite during this period of time, it can be assumed that the Boxer Revolution was a revolution created by the elite. This conclusion has been based on the development of the aim of the Boxer Revolution which was to wipe out the foreign missionaries in order to preserve and protect the Emperor of China and its people. They had based this on literary pieces that were usually accessible only to the elite. Among these forms of literature were the plays, poetry and teachings of Confucius and Tao. It will be highly illogical to state that the Boxers were mainly comprised of illiterate individuals since the only way for these to become the basis of the Boxers Movement is if and only if these someone who is literate, that is someone who could both read and write, would be able to not only understand these forms of literature but would have the capacity to disseminate these information to others. Also, the preconception that the Boxer Revolution was a revolt against the Manchu government has been disproved by the information presented in this paper as well. While it may be true that the Boxer Revolution was ultimately suppressed by the Manchu government, among the objectives of the revolution movement was to protect their Emperor and Empress Dowager. They had viewed the actions of the foreign missionaries as a step closer for cultural imperialism to become rampant in the country. Cultural imperialism refers to the act of members from a foreign country to bring in their own customs, beliefs and traditions into another country and would slowly assimilate this to the citizens of that particular country, usually through some form of political force. The most common method used for cultural imperialism is through religion. This was the case in the Boxer movement. How to cite A Closer Look into the Boxer Rebellion, Papers

Fatehpuri Sikri free essay sample

Here he commenced the construction of a planned walled city which took the next fifteen years in planning and construction of a series royal palaces, harem, courts, a mosque, private quarters and other utility buildings. [2]  He named the city, Fatehabad, with  Fateh, a word of Arabic origin in Persian, meaning victory. it was later called Fatehpur Sikri. [3]  It is at Fatehpur Sikri that the legends of Akbar and his famed courtiers, the  nine jewels  or  Navaratnas, were born[citation needed]. Fatehpur Sikri is one of the best preserved collection of  Mughal architecture  in India. [4] According to contemporary historians, Akbar took a great interest in the building of Fatehpur Sikri and probably also dictated its architectural style. Seeking to revive the splendours of Persian court ceremonial made famous by his ancestor Timur, Akbar planned the complex on Persian principles. But the influences of his adopted land came through in the typically Indian embellishments. We will write a custom essay sample on Fatehpuri Sikri or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Easy availability of sandstone in the neighbouring areas of Fatehpur Sikri, also meant that all the buildings here were made of the red stone. The imperial Palace complex consists of a number of independent pavilions arranged in formal geometry on a piece of level ground, a pattern derived from Arab and central Asian tent encampments. In its entirety, the monuments at Fatehpur Sikri thus reflect the genius of Akbar in assimilating diverse regional architectural influences within a holistic style that was uniquely his own. 5] The Imperial complex was abandoned in 1585, shortly after its completion, due to paucity of water and its proximity with theRajputana  areas in the North-West, which were increasingly in turmoil. Thus the capital was shifted to  Lahore  so that Akbar could have a base in the less stable part of the empire, before moving back Agra in 1598, where he had begun his reign as he shifted his focus to  Deccan. [6]  In fact, he never returned to the city exc ept for a brief period in 1601. 7][8]  In later Mughal history it was occupied for a short while by Mughal emperor,  Muhammad Shah  (r. 1719 -1748), and his  regent,  SayyidHussain Ali Khan Barha, one of the  Syed Brothers, was murdered here in 1720. Today much of the imperial complex which spread over nearly two mile long and one mile wide area is largely intact and resembles a  ghost town. It is still surrounded by a five mile long wall built during its original construction, on three sides. However apart from the imperial buildings complex few other buildings stand in the area, which is mostly barren, except of ruins of the  bazaars  of the old city near theNaubat Khana, the drum-house entrance at Agra Road. The modern town lies at the western end of the complex, which was a municipality from 1865 to 1904, and later made a notified area, and in 1901 had a population of 7,147. For a long time it was still known for its masons and stone carvers, though in Akbar time it was known and fabrics of hair and silk-spinning.